#9 Clause and Phrase

* CLAUSE
: A related words that contains a subject and a verb.                                         

Eg : He came.

* PHRASE
: A group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
Eg : On the table.


To help you to understand this chapter better, I will give you a sentence of example that contain both clause and phrase.

Eg : He is laughing at the joker.

This sentence has two different parts:
1] " He is laughing"      
* It is a clause.
* Because it has a subject (he) and a predicate that contains a verb (is laughing).
 
 2] "at the joker"
* It is a phrase.
* Because it does not contain neither a subject nor a verb.                              

 * * * * *

TYPES OF CLAUSE

i - Independent clause (main) / Simple sentence               

: Is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a sentence.

Eg 
: I met the boy who helped me.

: He became angry and smashed the window into pieces.
: She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.

In the above sentence, each underlined part shows main clauses.  It expresses complete thought and can stand as a sentence. That is why main or independent sentences can be referred as a simple sentence.

ii - Dependent clause (subordinate)

: It does not express a complete thought and can not stand as a sentence.

: It depends on other clause to express complete thought.

: Dependent clause or subordinate must have a clause to make a meaningful sentence.

Eg
: I met the boy who helped me.
: He became angry and smashed the window into pieces.

: She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.

* * * * * 

TYPES OF PHRASE

Definition

It is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. Eg : He is laughing at the clown.

Functions

Functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). 

Noun Phrase

Consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.

It is as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. 
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers        (the modifiers can be after or before noun)

Eg:
The girl with blonde hair is jumping. (as noun/subject)

He is wearing a nice black shoes.  (as noun/object)

  

Prepositional phrase.

Consists of a preposition, object of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers.

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. 

A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.

Eg:
The man in the room is our teacher.          
He puts his cap on the study table.        

 

Adjective Phrase.

 A  group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence.
Eg:
He is wearing a nice red shirt.  (modifies shirt)

The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)

              
Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girl with brown hair is singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.

 

Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group works like an adverb in a sentence.

It modifies verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Eg:
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care.  (modifies verb drive)
           

A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He always behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here.

 

Verb Phrase

A combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.

Eg:
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
       
A verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. 

Infinitive Phrase

Consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. 

An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence.
Eg:
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire.  (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

 

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.
Eg:
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem.  (As noun/object)     
               

#8 Sentence Connectors

One of the best ways to improve your writing style is by using sentence connectors.Sentence connectors are used to express relationship between ideas and to combine sentences. Thus, it will add sophistication to your writing style.

FUNCTIONS

* Perform different functions are placed at the beginning of the sentence.
* To link ideas between two or more sentences.
* To give paragraph coherence.
* Used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence ideas, theories and many more.

  These are the basic examples of sentence connectors for you to use your writing such as report, essay, journal and many more. For more example about sentence connectors, please do visit this helpful website :

 https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/linking_LL/sentence.html

    * * * * * 

EXERCISE ! 

Instruction : Identify the sentence connectors used.

         It may seem that there’s nothing you can do about your stress level. The bills are not going to stop coming, there will never be more hours in the day for all your errands, and your career or family responsibilities will always be demanding. But you have a lot more control than you might think. In fact, the simple realization that you’re in control of your life is the foundation of stress management.

#7 Preposition

 

DEFINITION

* A word in a sentence that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in a sentence is called as an adverb. 

* It indicates the temporal, spatial, or logical relationship, of its object to the rest of the sentence.

* The example can be seen in the picture above. 

* * * * * 

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME 

* At

: Used to designate specific times

eg : We departed at 9.00 pm.                         

* On

: Used to designate days and times
eg :  My brother is coming on Monday

* In
: Used for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
eg : She likes to jog in the morning
    :  It's too cold in winter to run outside.

* For
: Used to measure time
: Seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years.
eg : I have been studying for 3 hours.

* Since
: Used for specific time or dates
eg : The shop has been operated since 1965

* * * * * 

PREPOSITION OF MOVEMENT

* To
: We used to in order to express movement toward a place
eg : They were driving to the work together

* Toward / Towards
: Both of them are helpful prepositions to express movements.
: The variant spellings is an option to whichever sounds better to you.
eg : We are moving towards the light

 

#6 Adverbs

DEFINITION

* An adverbs is a word that modifies a verb.
* Adverbs often tell us when, where, why, or under what condition something happens (happened)
 For example : He drives slowly ( How did he drive? )

Lets watch a short video to get an idea about adverbs :

HOW DOES IT WORK?

* Frequent ends with -ly
* But sometimes, the word that ends with -ly does not guarantee the word is an adverb.
Eg : Lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly.

* We often use more or most, and less or least to show degree with adverbs
Eg : With a pair of sneakers on, she could move more quickly and comfortably.

* Often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something.
   They are said to have three different functions : emphasis, amplify, or downtone.

- Emphasizers
Eg : I really do not like him.
     : He literally wrecked his mother's car.

- Amplifier
Eg : The teachers completely rejected her proposal.
     : I am absolutely refuse to attend to any more faculty meetings.
     : I know him well

- Downtoners
Eg : Joe sort of felt betrayed by his friend.
     : I kind of like this college.
     : We can improve this proposal to some extent.

* The "as___as" construction can be used to create adverb the shows equality or sameness .
Eg : I can run as fast as my friend.


* Most adverbs that modifies verbs will fit into more than one place in the sentence.
 Eg : Quickly, the robber ran away.
      : The robber ran away quickly.
      : The robber quickly ran away.

 * * * * * 

CATEGORIES OF ADVERBS

* Manner

-rapidly, unobtrusively, precariously, nicely,

-suitable examples for questions containing how

* Temporal/ Time Adverbs

-now , soon, afterwards, immediately

-suitable examples for questions containing when

* Locative  Adverbs

- here , abroad, outside, nearby

-Suitable examples for questions containing where

* Degree Adverbs

-Almost, entirely, little, much, rather, too, very

* Reason Adverbs

-so, why

E.g : I don’t think so

      : Why did she say that?

* Number Adverbs

-first, one, second, twice, thrice

E.g :  We were here first

      : I will say this once

#5 VERB

DEFINITION 

•       Verbs are a class of words used to show the performance of an action (do, throw,run), existence (be), possession (have), or state (know, love) of a subject. To put it simply, a verb shows what something or someone does.
• 
  
•        Most statements in speech and writing have a main verb. These verbs are expressed in tenses which place everything in a point in time. 
• 
  
•       Verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being.
• 
  
•      Every sentence must have a verb. 

For example :

* Subject *Verb *Object

i- My friends are plucking the apples    

ii- She is sweeping the floor

iii- He kicks the ball

• 
  

                    

* Verb is one most the most important part of the sentence.

* States something about the subject of the sentence and express action, events, or states of being.

* * * * *

MAJOR TYPES OF VERBS

* Lexical verbs : 

: Function only as a verb ( eat, think, drink )

: Sometimes called as 'full verbs' 

: Most lexical verbs have regular endings for forming present or past tense ( call, calls, called )

* Primary verbs 

: Function both as auxiliary verbs and main verbs ( be, have, do )

: They form separate class because they can be used either as main verb or as an auxiliary verb

: He does my washing

* Modal verbs 

: Function only as auxiliary verbs ( can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must )

: Also functions as helping verb that can modify the grammatical mood of a verb.

: Do not have participle or infinitives

* * * * * 

VERBS AS...

* Mental Activity 

: Believe, forgets, notice, recognize, remember 

* Describe emotional states                                          

: Desire, love, want, prefer, hates

* Perception

: See, hear, feel, smell, taste

* Other 

: Belong, cost, fit, include, need, own, matter

** * * *   

FORMS OF THE PRESENT SIMPLE :

} I am/have/do/say

} We/you/they are/have do say                            

} He/she/it is has/does/says

} What do you mean?

} What does she mean?

} I don’t like sweets.

} She likes sweets.

} We have pets.

} Siti has a pet.

} Ann doesn’t have any pet.

#4 Nouns

Noun

Definition

* It is a part of speech ( a word or a phrase )

*  Can re-occur with (in)definite articles and attributive adjectives.

* Sometimes, a noun can be something that we can touch ( lion, grass, cake )

* Sometimes, noun can be something for the things we can not touch ( bravery, joy )

* Also functions as a head for a noun phrase.

* Functions as : 

• ža subject,
• ždirect object,
• žan indirect object
• ža subject complement                                  
  
  
  
• žan object complement
• žan adjective
• žan adverb 

    Eg : He hits the girl - as a subject

NOTES 

1 : Noun can be occurred with determiners 'the'

Eg  : The girl, Those pencils

 2 : Occurred with subject determiners with possessive noun phrases

 Eg :  his son, the boy's friends

COUNTABLE NOUN

* Have singular & plural form for anything that you can count 

   E.g : a bag, two bags

* Count noun can takes a plural, 

* Can combine with numerals or quantifiers

   E.g : one, two, several, every, most

COUNTABLE NOUN and UNCOUNTABLE NOUN

* Some uncountable noun have a countable equivalent  which is a different word.

   Eg :   Job ( countable ) & work ( uncountable )

        :   Currency- dollar, pound, ringgit ( countable ) & money ( uncountable )

        :   We need more wood ( countable ) & Wood burns more easily than coal ( uncountable )

* * * * * 

SINGULAR NOUN

* Eg : Girl, book, pencil

PLURAL NOUN

* Regular - ends in s

   Eg : Girls, books, pencils

* Irregular - change in vowel

   Eg : Woman-Women , Man-Men

SAME SINGULAR NOUN AND PLURAL NOUN

* Eg : sheep ( one sheep, two sheep ) , fish ( a fish, many fish )

* * * * * 

ABSTRACT IDEAS

* Anything you can not perceive or pick out through your five senses - qualities, states or activities.

   Eg : Happiness, kindness , adulthood, liberty

        * * * * * 

* * * * * 

GENDER NOUNS

* žMASCULINE GENDER 

    - all words representing male      

    - boy,king

 * FEMININE GENDER

   - for all words representing female              

   - girl, queen

* NEUTER GENDER

   - inanimate objects

   - pen, book, chair

* COMMON GENDER

   - males of females

   - cousin, niece, nephew, child, friend, witch, wizards   

P/S : Let me give you a visual example so that you could understand more about these differences.

  

* * * * *

GENITIVES NOUNS

* Genitives nouns is also known as possessive nouns.

* It is a noun with an apostrophe's.

eg : 

i Cassey’s book  (possession for singular noun)

ii Soldiers’ guns  (possession for plural noun with ‘s’)

iii Men’s room  (possession for plural noun not with ‘s’)

iv My father and mother’s friend  (possess or represent by a number of words)

v Ali’s friend  (names of human being)

vi Dog’s tail  (names of animals)

* * * * *

PRONOUNS

* SUBJECT PRONOUNS

  - used before a verb 

  - I, You, He, She, They

* OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS

  -  used after a verb

  - me, you, him, her, it, us, them

 P/S : Since these both types of pronouns are related to each others, I would like to give you a couple of examples to help you to understand their usage.

1) She hits me with a broom

2) They burn his book

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

ž1.Personal Pronouns - me

ž2.Reflexive & emphasizing Pronouns - himself

ž3.Demonstrative Pronouns - this

ž4.Possessive Pronouns - mine

ž5.Interrogative Pronouns - whom were you dancing with?

ž6.Indefinite Pronouns - all        

ž7.Reciprocal Pronouns - each other

ž8. Relative Pronouns - The boy who find the coins will receive a pen

* * * * * 

PROPER NOUNS

* Also known as proper name

* Used to name a person, a thing, months, a place ( Harry Potter, Tulips,Malaysia, February )

* The first letter in the proper noun is capitalized ( Harry Potter, Malaysia, February )

COMMON NOUNS

* Used to refer a person, a place, a thing in general sense

* Only capitalized when you begin a sentence. 

* Girls, boys, laptops, flowers, trees                                            

#3 Adverb

♥ Definition

* Describing about the verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
* A word that modifies.
* Many adverbs ends with -ly , in order to express how an action is performed.
* They tell us : when, where, how, in what manner, to what extent the action is performed.

 TYPES OF ADVERBS

1- Adverbs of Time
 * Press the button now.
 * I tell him daily.
 * I will call him later.                                                  

2- Adverbs of Place
 *  Daisies grow everywhere
 * I did not put it there.

3- Adverbs of Manner
 * He passed the ball easily.
 * She is dancing gracefully.

4- Adverbs of Degree
 * That is the farthest I could ever jumped.

ADVERBS CAN MODIFY ADJECTIVES AND OTHER ADVERBS

Even though the words adverbs imply that they are only used with verbs, adverbs can also modify  adjectives and other adverbs :

Eg :

* Peter had an extremely ashen face.
  : The word extremely modifies the adjective ashen.

* She wore a beautifully designed dress.
  : The word beautifully modifies the adjective designed.

*  I finish my home works remarkably quickly.
  : The word remarkably modify the verb finish and adverb quickly.

* * * * *

FLAT ADVERBS

Adjectives that do no change form (add -ly) becomes adverbs that is called as flat adverbs.

* Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep and near.

Eg :

* The early train arrives at 7.15 am

* Early as an adjective.

* Early describes the noun train and answers the question 'which one?'.

* The 7.15 am train arrives early.

* Early describe the verb arrived and answers the question when.